Top Digital Marketing Agencies in San Francisco
Explore the global list of Top Digital Marketing Companies.
Compare Bay Area neighbors: Oakland agencies and San Jose agencies.
Go broad and browse Top Digital Marketing Agencies in California.
Need niche expertise? Browse San Francisco healthcare marketing specialists.
-
Featured
What are Featured Providers?
$5,000+$50 - $99 / hr50 - 249Serves San Francisco, CAServices provided
See all 38 projectsCodedesign is a digital marketing agency specializing in SEO, digital advertising, and website optimization. The company has received overwhelmingly positive feedback, with clients appreciating their technical expertise, responsive project management, and alignment with business goals. Approximately 90% of reviewers highlighted their effective communication and strategic insights, while no significant areas for improvement were noted.
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr50 - 249Serves San Francisco, CAServices provided
See all 365 projectsDisruptive Advertising is a full-service digital marketing agency specializing in PPC, SEO, and comprehensive digital marketing strategies. Their reviews are predominantly positive, highlighting high-quality service, effective communication, and personalized client engagement, with around 90% of reviews emphasizing their proactive project management and expertise. However, approximately 10% of feedback suggests challenges with managing large-scale budgets and campaign execution.
$1,000+Undisclosed250 - 999Serves San Francisco, CAServices provided
See all 147 projectsIntero Digital is a digital marketing agency specializing in SEO, content marketing, digital PR, web design, and paid media strategies. The company receives predominantly positive feedback, with approximately 75% of reviews highlighting their strategic and responsive project management. However, a minority of reviews, around 25%, criticize their execution and communication, indicating areas for improvement.
$5,000+$150 - $199 / hr10 - 49Serves San Francisco, CAServices provided
See all 18 projectsTop Growth Marketing INC is a comprehensive digital marketing agency specializing in paid media management, email marketing, and social media advertising. Client reviews reveal a consistent theme of satisfaction with their strategic expertise and effective collaboration, with 100% of reviewers highlighting significant improvements in key performance metrics such as sales, ROAS, and customer retention. The agency is commended for its proactive communication, structured team approach, and commitment to client success.
-
$1,000+$100 - $149 / hr2 - 9Fremont, CA
Services provided
See all 50 projectsJose Angelo Studios is an SEO and digital marketing agency known for its expertise in improving website performance, conversions, and organic traffic. The reviews highlight a high level of client satisfaction, with approximately 90% of feedback emphasizing their strong communication skills and timely project delivery. Clients consistently praise their data-driven strategies and creative approach, noting significant improvements in traffic and engagement metrics.
-
UndisclosedUndisclosed250 - 999San Francisco, CA
Services provided
Launched in 2012, S2W Media is a Business Consulting company. The team specializes in Business Consulting and Email Marketing and is located in New York, New York and San Francisco, California.
Read more -
Featured
What are Featured Providers?
$50,000+$150 - $199 / hr10 - 49Serves San Francisco, CAServices provided
See all 16 projectsHotspex Media is a digital marketing agency renowned for its omnichannel media services, including digital advertising, SEO, and traditional media. The reviews highlight their impressive project management and innovative solutions, with 95% of reviewers commending their deep industry knowledge and attention to detail. Clients appreciate their strategic insights and data-driven results, with notable improvements in KPIs, brand sentiment, and ROI.
-
UndisclosedUndisclosed2 - 9Lafayette, CA
Services provided
Social media marketing company Blast My Biz provides Social Media Marketing and Email Marketing. They were established in 2010.
Read more -
$1,000+$300+ / hr50 - 249Walnut Creek, CA
Services provided
Waltz Publishers is a social media marketing company. The Walnut Creek, California-based team focuses on Social Media Marketing and Content Marketing.
Read more -
$5,000+$150 - $199 / hr2 - 9San Ramon, CA
Services provided
See all 4 projectsBoomcycle Digital Marketing is a comprehensive digital marketing agency specializing in SEO, website optimization, and integrated marketing solutions. Clients consistently praise their responsiveness, strategic expertise, and ability to deliver tangible results, with 100% positive feedback regarding their project management and outcomes. Boomcycle's personalized approach and alignment with client goals are repeatedly highlighted across reviews.
-
$1,000+$50 - $99 / hrFreelancerSan Francisco, CA
Services provided
MEANINGFUL SEO is a Content Marketing company headquartered in San Francisco, California. They provide Content Marketing and Search Engine Optimization and were launched in 2005.
Read more -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr2 - 9San Mateo, CA
Services provided
PureLynx is a Content Marketing company launched in 2011. The team offers Content Marketing and E-Commerce Development and is located in San Mateo, California.
Read more -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr2 - 9San Francisco, CA
Services provided
Launched in 2014, Jumpyr is a Digital Strategy company. Headquartered in San Francisco, California, the team offers Digital Strategy and Social Media Marketing.
Read more -
$1,000+$25 - $49 / hr50 - 249San Ramon, CA
Services provided
Midsize social media marketing agency First Growth Agency, is based in Dubai, United Arab Emirates and Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Their services include Social Media Marketing and Email Marketing.
Read more -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr2 - 9Oakland, CA
Services provided
MeetGeraldine is a SEO services firm. They offer Search Engine Optimization and Marketing Strategy and are located in Oakland, California and Los Angeles, California.
Read more -
$10,000+$150 - $199 / hr2 - 9San Francisco, CA
Services provided
Oliver + Sons is a San Francisco, California-based branding firm. They provide Branding and Media Planning & Buying.
Read more -
UndisclosedUndisclosed2 - 9San Francisco, CA
Services provided
Speakeasy Strategies is a small PR agency. Launched in 2013, the team offers Public Relations and Content Marketing.
Read more -
UndisclosedUndisclosed2 - 9San Francisco, CA
Services provided
Branding agency Thermal PR provides Branding and Content Marketing. They are located in San Francisco, California.
Read more -
UndisclosedUndisclosed2 - 9Oakland, CA
Services provided
Shia Productions is a Marketing Strategy company. Established in 2009, their team provides Marketing Strategy and Social Media Marketing.
Read more -
UndisclosedUndisclosed2 - 9San Francisco, CA
Services provided
Codepilot, Inc. Is a web design company launched in 2017. Their services include Web Design and Web Development.
Read more -
$1,000+$50 - $99 / hr2 - 9San Mateo, CA
Services provided
Magpie Child Care Digital Marketing, a Digital Strategy company, is headquartered in San Mateo, California. Their services include Digital Strategy and Marketing Strategy.
Read more -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr10 - 49San Francisco, CA
Services provided
Avocados and Coconuts, a small video production agency, is in San Francisco, California. The team specializes in Video Production and Content Marketing.
Read more -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr10 - 49Emeryville, CA
Services provided
LINUS is a branding company founded in 1996. Located in Emeryville, California, the team specializes in Branding and Content Marketing.
Read more -
UndisclosedUndisclosed10 - 49El Cerrito, CA
Services provided
In El Cerrito, California, Ezepo is a small branding agency. The team specializes in Branding and Marketing Strategy.
Read more -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr2 - 9San Francisco, CA
Services provided
Video production agency STEPHEN PORTER PRODUCTIONS was founded in 2012. The team focuses on Video Production and Content Marketing.
Read more -
Undisclosed$100 - $149 / hr2 - 9Dublin, CA
Services provided
See all 3 projectsSevenAtoms is a digital marketing agency specializing in PPC management, content creation, and website optimization. Reviews highlight their exceptional project management and ability to deliver results, such as reducing cost per acquisition and increasing sales-qualified pipelines by up to 100%. Approximately 90% of reviews emphasize their effectiveness in producing immediate results and their strong focus on transparency and client satisfaction.
-
$1,000+$100 - $149 / hr2 - 9San Ramon, CA
Services provided
See all 8 projectsdesignial is a UI/UX design and consulting company with expertise in user research, strategy, and development for web and mobile applications. With a 100% positive feedback rate, clients praise their ability to provide actionable UX solutions and strategic advice, often highlighting Raj, the founder, for his project management and strategic capabilities. Clients frequently commend their communication, flexibility, and innovative problem-solving approaches.
-
$10,000+$100 - $149 / hr50 - 249San Francisco, CA
Services provided
Heat, an Advertising company, was launched in 2004. The team specializes in Advertising and Media Planning & Buying.
Read more -
$10,000+$100 - $149 / hr50 - 249Oakland, CA
Services provided
Carol H Williams Advertising is an Advertising company. The midsize Oakland, California-based team specializes in Advertising and Branding. The agency was founded in 1986.
Read more -
$10,000+$100 - $149 / hr50 - 249San Francisco, CA
Services provided
Founded in 1997, Nice & Company is a midsize branding firm based in San Francisco, California. Their team provides Branding and Media Planning & Buying.
Read more -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr50 - 249San Francisco, CA
Services provided
IZEA is an Advertising company. They are based in Maitland, Florida and West Hollywood, California and have midsize team of experts. Their services include Advertising and Branding.
Read more -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr50 - 249San Francisco, CA
Services provided
Established in 1997, The Mark Company is a midsize Advertising company. Their team offers Advertising and Branding.
Read more -
$10,000+$100 - $149 / hr50 - 249San Francisco, CA
Services provided
Founded in 1965, Wolff Olins is an Advertising company. Located in New York, New York and London, England, the team provides Advertising and Branding.
Read more -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr50 - 249San Francisco, CA
Services provided
The Sage Group is an Advertising company founded in 2003. The team offers Advertising and Branding.
Read more -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr50 - 249Oakland, CA
Services provided
Advertising company Captricity was launched in 2011. The team focuses on Advertising and Branding and is based in Oakland, California.
Read more -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr50 - 249Redwood City, CA
Services provided
TDA Group, an Advertising company, is based in Redwood City, California. They focus on Advertising and Branding.
Read more -
UndisclosedUndisclosed50 - 249San Francisco, CA
Services provided
Mediasmith, an Advertising company, is based in San Francisco, California. Their services include Advertising and Branding.
Read more -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr50 - 249San Francisco, CA
Services provided
Eveo is a midsize Advertising company located in San Francisco, California and New York, New York. The team provides Advertising and Branding.
Read more -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr50 - 249San Francisco, CA
Services provided
Venables Bell & Partners is a San Francisco, California-based branding company. The team offers Branding and Digital Strategy.
Read more -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr50 - 249Oakland, CA
Services provided
Broadly, an Advertising company, is based in Oakland, California and Orange County, California. They provide Advertising and Branding and were launched in 2013.
Read more -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr50 - 249San Francisco, CA
Services provided
Launched in 2012, Radius, a midsize Advertising company, is located in San Francisco, California and Atlanta, Georgia. Their team provides Advertising and Branding.
Read more -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr50 - 249Oakland, CA
Services provided
Circlepoint is an Advertising company. Headquartered in Oakland, California and San Jose, California, the company was launched in 1987. Their team provides Advertising and Branding.
Read more -
$5,000+$150 - $199 / hr50 - 249San Francisco, CA
Services provided
Midsize e-commerce development company Riddle & Bloom, is located in Boston, Massachusetts and San Francisco, California. Their services include E-Commerce Development and Mobile App Development.
Read more -
UndisclosedUndisclosed50 - 249San Mateo, CA
Services provided
Marvel Marketers is a branding firm. The San Mateo, California-based team provides Branding and Marketing Strategy.
Read more -
UndisclosedUndisclosed50 - 249San Francisco, CA
Services provided
Established in 2011, Aquent Talent is a Content Marketing company. The midsize team specializes in Content Marketing and UX/UI Design.
Read more -
$1,000+$150 - $199 / hrFreelancerSan Francisco, CA
Services provided
Claire Bough Content Marketing, a small Content Marketing company, is headquartered in San Francisco, California. The team offers Content Marketing and Marketing Strategy.
Read more -
$1,000+$25 - $49 / hrFreelancerBrisbane, CA
Services provided
Small web design company Occam's Razor Digital Marketing, is located in Brisbane, California. The team offers Web Design and Search Engine Optimization.
Read more -
UndisclosedUndisclosed2 - 9San Francisco, CA
Services provided
MailDeck is an Email Marketing company. The company is headquartered in San Francisco, California. Their services include Email Marketing.
Read more -
$1,000+$100 - $149 / hr2 - 9San Francisco, CA
Services provided
Headquartered in San Francisco, California, Got.Media is a SEO agency. They focus on Search Engine Optimization.
Read more -
$10,000+$200 - $300 / hr10 - 49Walnut Creek, CA
Services provided
Established in 2017, MediaJel is an Advertising company. The team focuses on Advertising and Mobile & App Marketing.
Read more -
$1,000+UndisclosedFreelancerSan Francisco, CA
Services provided
Seeqer is a San Francisco, California-based Content Marketing company. Founded in 2023, the team specializes in Content Marketing and Advertising.
Read more -
UndisclosedUndisclosed10 - 49Redwood City, CA
Services provided
See all 1 projectsLeadIQ is a data solutions company specializing in providing prospect data and CRM integration services. According to reviews, while 100% of users appreciated the ease of use and communication from the support team, 20-25% faced issues with data integrity and unresolved integration matters. Overall, the platform was deemed effective in enhancing outbound functions and contributing to revenue growth.
-
Undisclosed< $25 / hr2 - 9Concord, CA
Services provided
See all 1 projectsGrowth Copywriting is a strategic content marketing and SEO agency known for significantly improving organic visibility and revenue for clients. Reviews indicate 100% positive feedback, highlighting their expertise, responsiveness, and professionalism. Notably, they achieved a 1000% increase in visibility for one website within six weeks.
-
$5,000+UndisclosedFreelancerOakland, CA
Services provided
Small branding agency and SEO agency Uncommon Growth Studio, is in Oakland, California. The team provides Branding and Search Engine Optimization.
Read more -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr2 - 9San Francisco, CA
Services provided
Pier2 Marketing, a Market Research company, was founded in 2007. The agency specializes in Market Research and Branding.
Read more
Share your project goals, and we’ll connect you with verified partners who fit your budget and timeline.
Get My Matches
Tell us what you need — we’ll match you with top agencies in minutes.
Get My MatchesWhy Trust Clutch
At Clutch, we believe trust is the foundation of every business relationship. Our mission is to help buyers make confident, data-backed decisions informed by real client experiences.
Every review on Clutch undergoes a rigorous, human-led verification process to make sure it’s valid. Our team of specialists confirms the identity of each reviewer, ensures the project is legitimate, and only publishes reviews that meet our strict criteria.
Verification doesn’t stop at the point of publication. Our Trust & Safety team routinely audits older reviews against our guidelines. When reviews fall short of our standards, we remove them.
We evaluate service providers using a structured methodology that combines:
- In-depth client interviews and ratings
- Comprehensive project details
- Market presence
- Portfolio examples and industry recognition
This data powers tools like the Leaders Matrix, which helps you compare agencies directly. Our research team curates rankings by weighing verified reviews most heavily, so the most trusted and experienced providers rise to the top.
Using this unique combination of verified client feedback and provider-supplied insights, Clutch distills the most important details into clear, digestible summaries so you have everything you need to make confident, informed decisions quickly.
We take fraud seriously. Providers who violate our guidelines may face lower rankings, restricted visibility, or removal from the platform altogether.
Clutch’s commitment to transparency is ongoing. We’re constantly refining our systems to protect the integrity of reviews and support you in finding the right agency.
Best San Francisco Digital Marketing Companies
-
$1,000+$100 - $149 / hr10 - 49San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
39.5/40.020/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience9.5/10 Market PresenceService focus
70% Digital Marketing30% Other -
$50,000+$300+ / hr50 - 249San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
39.9/40.020/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience9.9/10 Market PresenceService focus
95% Digital Marketing5% Other -
$5,000+$150 - $199 / hr50 - 249San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
38.5/40.018.8/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience9.7/10 Market PresenceService focus
80% Digital Marketing20% Other -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr10 - 49San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
34.5/40.018/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience6.5/10 Market PresenceService focus
75% Digital Marketing25% Other -
$1,000+$100 - $149 / hr10 - 49Oakland, CA
Ability to deliver
38.5/40.019.4/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience9.1/10 Market PresenceService focus
90% Digital Marketing10% Other -
$50,000+$200 - $300 / hr10 - 49San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
34.9/40.017/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience7.9/10 Market PresenceService focus
55% Digital Marketing45% Other -
$10,000+$200 - $300 / hr10 - 49San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
32.4/40.018.2/20 Reviews7.1/10 Clients & Experience7.1/10 Market PresenceService focus
80% Digital Marketing20% Other -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr10 - 49San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
37.2/40.017.2/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience10/10 Market PresenceService focus
40% Digital Marketing60% Other -
$1,000+Undisclosed10 - 49San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
31.8/40.015.8/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience6/10 Market PresenceService focus
90% Digital Marketing10% Other -
$5,000+$150 - $199 / hr50 - 249Burlingame, CA
Ability to deliver
34.9/40.017.2/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience7.7/10 Market PresenceService focus
85% Digital Marketing15% Other -
$1,000+$25 - $49 / hr250 - 999San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
39.8/40.019.8/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience10/10 Market PresenceService focus
10% Digital Marketing90% Other -
$5,000+$300+ / hr10 - 49San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
32.3/40.016.4/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience6/10 Market PresenceService focus
60% Digital Marketing40% Other -
$50,000+Undisclosed250 - 999San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
32.4/40.015.6/20 Reviews9/10 Clients & Experience7.8/10 Market PresenceService focus
30% Digital Marketing70% Other -
$5,000+$150 - $199 / hr10 - 49San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
35.5/40.018/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience7.5/10 Market PresenceService focus
35% Digital Marketing65% Other -
$1,000+$300+ / hr10 - 49Lafayette, CA
Ability to deliver
34.5/40.017.2/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience7.2/10 Market PresenceService focus
40% Digital Marketing60% Other -
$5,000+$150 - $199 / hr2 - 9San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
36.4/40.016.8/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience9.6/10 Market PresenceService focus
30% Digital Marketing70% Other -
$50,000+$200 - $300 / hr10 - 49San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
34.7/40.016.6/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience8.1/10 Market PresenceService focus
35% Digital Marketing65% Other -
$25,000+$150 - $199 / hr2 - 9San Rafael, CA
Ability to deliver
33.7/40.016.4/20 Reviews9.4/10 Clients & Experience7.9/10 Market PresenceService focus
45% Digital Marketing55% Other -
$5,000+$150 - $199 / hr10 - 49San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
30.6/40.016.2/20 Reviews7.3/10 Clients & Experience7.2/10 Market PresenceService focus
80% Digital Marketing20% Other -
$10,000+Undisclosed2 - 9San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
33.4/40.015.6/20 Reviews9.2/10 Clients & Experience8.6/10 Market PresenceService focus
90% Digital Marketing10% Other -
$1,000+$25 - $49 / hr10 - 49San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
35.2/40.016.6/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience8.6/10 Market PresenceService focus
25% Digital Marketing75% Other -
$5,000+$150 - $199 / hr10 - 49Sausalito, CA
Ability to deliver
33.7/40.016.6/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience7.1/10 Market PresenceService focus
30% Digital Marketing70% Other -
$1,000+$100 - $149 / hr10 - 49San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
30.2/40.015.8/20 Reviews8.4/10 Clients & Experience5.9/10 Market PresenceService focus
50% Digital Marketing50% Other -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr10 - 49San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
35.9/40.016.2/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience9.7/10 Market PresenceService focus
15% Digital Marketing85% Other -
UndisclosedUndisclosed50 - 249San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
34.4/40.015.8/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience8.6/10 Market PresenceService focus
20% Digital Marketing80% Other -
Undisclosed$100 - $149 / hr2 - 9Oakland, CA
Ability to deliver
33.4/40.015.6/20 Reviews9.4/10 Clients & Experience8.4/10 Market PresenceService focus
35% Digital Marketing65% Other -
$10,000+$150 - $199 / hr10 - 49San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
24.3/40.017.2/20 Reviews1.4/10 Clients & Experience5.7/10 Market PresenceService focus
100% Digital Marketing -
$5,000+Undisclosed2 - 9San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
35.3/40.016.6/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience8.8/10 Market PresenceService focus
20% Digital Marketing80% Other -
$5,000+$100 - $149 / hr10 - 49Oakland, CA
Ability to deliver
28.9/40.017.2/20 Reviews4.5/10 Clients & Experience7.2/10 Market PresenceService focus
95% Digital Marketing5% Other -
$25,000+$100 - $149 / hr10 - 49San Francisco, CA
Ability to deliver
36.3/40.017.2/20 Reviews10/10 Clients & Experience9.1/10 Market PresenceService focus
10% Digital Marketing90% Other
Latest Digital Marketing Articles
See all articles
How Brands Can Use Discord Communities
If you want to get your brand started in Discord communities, learn what to do and the mistakes to avoid.
Top Digital Marketing Agencies in San Francisco
Local teams understand the city’s fast-moving tech ecosystem, its diverse consumer base, and California’s regulatory landscape (think CCPA). By working with an agency that can meet in person, you gain:
- Real-time collaboration during product sprints
- Access to local media and influencer networks
- Knowledge of Bay Area events like Dreamforce and TechCrunch Disrupt, which can be folded into campaign calendars
- Cultural alignment with startup speed and investor expectations
For companies targeting US or global audiences, many SF agencies have experience scaling brands from Series A to IPO.
Budgets vary widely:
- Monthly retainers for full-service support: $7,000–$25,000
- Hourly consulting or project work: $150–$300 per hour
- One-off audits or campaign setups: $5,000–$15,000
Rates sit above the US average due to the city’s higher cost of living, but many agencies offer flexible, performance-based models for startups and nonprofits.
Given the city’s economic mix, agencies frequently support:
- Software & SaaS (Salesforce, Atlassian spin-offs)
- Fintech and blockchain ventures
- Biotech and health tech companies near Mission Bay
- E-commerce and D2C brands born in the Bay Area
- Hospitality, food, and sustainability startups
Some boutiques concentrate on regulated sectors like healthcare or crypto compliance.
Start by outlining your KPIs: lead volume, CAC, MQLs, or online sales. Then:
- Review Clutch profiles for case studies in your vertical.
- Check client references that mention metrics similar to your goals.
- Ask about the agency’s tech stack (GA4, HubSpot, Webflow, etc.) and how they report results.
- Compare cultural fit: do they match your sprint cadence and communication style?
- Validate that senior strategists, not just junior account reps, will be hands-on.
Shortlisting 3–5 firms and requesting a pilot project can further de-risk your choice.
Watch out for:
- Guaranteed rankings or overnight results. SEO and growth take time.
- Opaque pricing with hidden platform fees.
- One-size-fits-all strategies that ignore your unique funnel.
- Lack of first-party data compliance, especially regarding CCPA.
- High staff turnover, which can disrupt campaign continuity.
A credible agency will provide transparent roadmaps, clear attribution models, and realistic timelines.